Introduction

As Aotearoa New Zealand has become recognised as superdiverse due to the arrival of migrants, early childhood settings have also become more multicultural (Chan, 2019; 2020). At the same time, New Zealand has also seen a rapid increase in the number of international students enrolling to study early childhood education at tertiary institutions (Rana, 2020). Despite this, limited research has focused on teachers who come from migrant backgrounds (Arndt 2018; Cherrington & Shuker, 2012; Griffiths et al, 2022).

This paper focuses on the significant role cultural beliefs and practices play in shaping participants’ image of the child, their practice as teachers, and the ways in which they engage with tamariki (children), colleagues and whānau (family). While research has been undertaken with migrant children and their families in New Zealand ECE settings (Arndt, 2014; Lees & Ng, 2020; Mitchell & Kamenarac, 2022) few studies have investigated how teachers from migrant backgrounds embody culture in early learning settings (Arndt, 2018). A key finding of this research was that the combination of studying for their ECE qualification and time spent teaching in New Zealand early childhood centres had significantly changed both the participants’ image of the child and their corresponding views on play and learning. Through engaging with sociocultural theories which position children as active creators of knowledge (Ministry of Education MoE], 2017) and then applying these approaches during practice, first during their practicum experiences and later as beginner teachers, these new beliefs have become firmly established.

Limited research has been conducted about how students’ image of the child and beliefs about childhood change during the course of their early childhood teacher training, however Araújo’s (2022) study found that the image of the child that student teachers held evolved during their study and practicum experiences. In particular, participants became more aware of children’s agency and rights. Interestingly, in the case of Araújo’s research, after the students had concluded their study there remained an image of the child as a developing being, an ideology counter to the students’ other altered views of children from innocent and passive to agentic and competent. Early childhood teachers play a vital role in supporting children’s agency (Tong, 2023) and while there are some parallels with Araújo’s findings, this study found that by engaging with sociocultural theories that portrayed children as competent and capable (MoE, 2017), participants transformed their perceptions of tamariki to view them as agentic and empowered.

Theoretical underpinnings

Sociocultural theorists such as Bronfenbrenner (1979), Rogoff (1995) and Vygotsky (1978) are seminal studies which first examined the idea that childhood is socially and culturally constructed rather than a ‘natural’ process, and that children learn and develop through interactions with their whānau, friends and wider community. These studies argue that the image of a child that a kaiako (teacher) holds emerges from their own childhood experiences, their culture, the society they live in, their identity and values, and the ideas and philosophies that they are exposed to.

Sociocultural theories form the framework of the New Zealand early childhood curriculum, Te Whāriki, and acknowledge that children learn through their interactions and are competent, confident creators of knowledge (MoE, 2017). A fundamental concept shared by sociocultural theories is that human development is shaped by social and cultural factors. This means that the term culture extends beyond ethnicity to include all the values, understandings and behaviours associated with the diverse environments encountered by children (MoE, 2017). Drawing on sociocultural theory, this paper considers the way the image of the child held by beginner teachers from migrant backgrounds impacts on their practice. This, in turn, can affect outcomes for children, and influence relationships with whānau and early childhood teaching colleagues.

Positioning the research

The research project is positioned within a qualitative framework (Doyle & Loveridge, 2023) and draws on narrative inquiry to unpack the stories and experiences of 12 beginner teachers from migrant backgrounds. The participants were all teachers who had recently completed their Master of Teaching (ECE) or Bachelor of Teaching (ECE) at a tertiary institute in New Zealand. At the time of interviewing, all the participants had secured work in the education sector in Aotearoa New Zealand and had been working as fully qualified ECE kaiako for four to nine months.

Methodology

Most of the participants were of Chinese ethnicity (8), followed by two participants from India and one each from the countries of Hong Kong and Malaysia. All but one of the participants could be termed as first-generation New Zealanders, that is, someone who usually resides in New Zealand but was born outside of New Zealand, and whose parents were also not born in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2023).

Semi-structured interviews of approximately one hour with each of the participants were conducted, drawing on a narrative inquiry approach. Unpacking the participants’ discussions through a narrative inquiry approach is not simply about validating their stories, but a way of exploring “the social, cultural, familial, linguistic and institutional narratives within which individual’s experiences are … shaped and expressed” (Clandinin, 2023, p. 7). All interviews were recorded and transcribed, and participants were offered the chance to review their transcripts to ensure accuracy. Pseudonyms have been assigned to safeguard the identities of participants. Data was analysed thematically (Braun & Clarke, 2021), an approach which concentrates on collective experiences to identify commonalities and the interpretation of shared meanings.

From theory to practice – findings and discussion

Arndt (2018) has pointed out that early childhood teachers’ identity and feeling of belonging is fundamental to children’s wellbeing in early childhood settings, yet is it often overlooked in research within early childhood education. Arndt suggests that more attention needs to be given towards supporting early childhood teachers to deconstruct their own cultural realities and transformations as professionals. This paper uses the lens of the image of the child to unpack participants’ narratives and consider these realities and transformations.

The image of the child has been influenced by historical, cultural, political and social forces (McCartney & Harris, 2014). Children have gone from being seen and not heard to having their rights protected under legislation such as UNCROC (United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989) and recognised as capable and confident learners (MoE, 2017). The concept of the image of the child acknowledges that the views that teachers hold about children and childhood are influenced by their own cultural backgrounds, and that ideas about early childhood education are constructed.The lens through which teachers view children can therefore impact decisions around all aspects of the ECE experience, such as curriculum, pedagogy, resources, learning and interactions (Malaguzzi, 1994).

This research found that participants' cultural beliefs play a significant role in shaping their image of the child and influence how they perceive and interact with children in early childhood settings. Tong (2023) argues that “early childhood practitioners play a crucial role in realising children’s agency in early childhood settings” (p. 37). This study found that through engaging with rights-based discourses and sociocultural theories which position children as agentic, competent and capable, these beginner teachers revised their image of the child. This paper focuses on three aspects of this: expectations and beliefs about children, cultural constructions of early childhood education, and perspectives on play and learning.

Expectations and beliefs about children
This research found that participants' cultural backgrounds influence their expectations and beliefs about children's capabilities and roles. Most of them had arrived in New Zealand with an image of the child as a blank slate (Locke, 1690) or an empty vessel waiting to be filled with knowledge from adults. Some participants mentioned that in their culture, children are seen as dependent and in need of constant guidance and protection.

This perception may stem from cultural norms and the belief that children require adult guidance to navigate the world. This image of the child diverges from the one in New Zealand’s early childhood curriculum, Te Whāriki, (MoE, 2017) which views tamariki as competent and capable, and New Zealand early childhood discourses which recognise children as possessing agency (Tong, 2023).

Perceiving tamariki as either passive or agentic is connected to beliefs around children’s autonomy and interdependence, and these are worth considering as cultural values can influence participants' perceptions of children's capabilities (Chan, 2018; Tesar et al, 2019). Some participants shared examples from their home country’s early childhood context, which emphasised children's dependence on adults and prioritized collective goals over children’s individual development.

These ideas can shape expectations of children's abilities and the level of autonomy they are given. Again, this contrasts with New Zealand, as Te Whāriki explicitly encourages independent play, without help from adults, recognising this as an opportunity for children to exercise agency and direct their own play (Burke, 2014; D’Silva, 2019; MoE, 2017; Tong, 2023). There is also a strong focus on social justice and upholding children’s rights in New Zealand early childhood education (Mitchell, 2019). 

Te Whāriki draws from developmental and sociocultural perspectives utilising the theories of Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky and Bruner and, through the metaphor of weaving, establishes a curriculum framework that avoids being dominated by a singular worldview of the child or childhood (Tesar, 2015). By viewing children as competent learners in the present it allows teachers to question their assumptions about the extent of children’s abilities. This, in turn, can lead to teachers offering more complex learning experiences (Tong, 2023).

Cultural constructions of early childhood education
Cultural concepts shape most of the ideas about appropriate early childhood practice and curricula, but interactions in the ECE space can often go unnoticed or unrecognised as pedagogy because they are accepted as ‘normal’ by those familiar with them (Burke & Duncan, 2016). For the participants, beliefs about the purpose and value of education had contributed to their image of the child. When considering their experiences of ECE prior to coming to New Zealand, participants expressed expectations that even very young children should achieve academically within a formal learning setting.

These expectations may also influence their perception of what children should be capable of and the importance placed on specific skills and knowledge acquisition. Chan’s (2018) research found that, despite gaining exposure to cultural practices from both their home and host countries through transnational experiences, Chinese migrant parents did not want to relinquish heritage practices they believed were beneficial for their children’s success. One example of this included Chinese methods of teaching mathematics and their perception that Chinese children achieved superior maths scores. Another study by Chan (2023) showed that Chinese parents held firm beliefs about the academic skills their children should acquire and bilingual language learning. Chan (2018) argues that kaiako must engage in dialogue with immigrant parents in order to comprehend their cultural practices. This kind of kōrero (discussion) is vital for implementing adaptable teaching approaches that align with parental aspirations.

In contrast to the academic, teacher-directed early learning contexts that participants had encountered in their home countries, “the language of Te Whāriki is not one of risk, vulnerability and competition. It speaks, instead of opportunity, respect and relationships” (Tesar, 2015, p. 2). Advocating for children’s right to choose is consistent with contemporary approaches in early childhood in New Zealand where the centrality of children’s perspectives in curriculum planning is foregrounded (Te One, 2011). Within the New Zealand early childhood setting, children are not subjected to formal tests or assessments, but instead experience a formative approach characterised by various methods of documenting their learning, where they can actively contribute and share their own work (Tesar, 2015).

Views on play and learning
Participants also held views about what kind of play and learning was appropriate for children in the early years. These ideas were informed not only by their own childhoods and culture, but also from their understandings of the child’s role and development. In contrast to New Zealand’s early childhood curriculum, Te Whāriki, which places the child at the centre through play and exploration (MoE, 2017), participants’ own early education experiences had been shaped by practices that emphasized structured learning and academic achievement over play-based learning.

These cultural perspectives have the potential to shape participants' beliefs about the role of play in children's development and the importance of child-initiated exploration. Te Whāriki advocates for parent-teacher partnerships, and child-centred, play-based pedagogy (MoE, 2017), and these discourses influence the approaches of early childhood kaiako. However, as Chan (2018) and Guo (2018) point out, immigrants that are new to Aotearoa New Zealand may not be familiar with these prevailing early childhood education discourses.

Endorsing an approach that values children’s right to make choices aligns with current theories in early childhood education in New Zealand that highlight the importance of including children’s perspectives in curriculum planning (Ritchie & Lambert, 2018; Te One, 2011; MoE, 2017). Te Whāriki upholds the central role of play in fostering the holistic development of children, viewing play as a means by which tamariki can be affirmed and empowered irrespective of their age, abilities or cultural heritage (Nicolson and Bracefield, 2019). This approach also aligns with UNCROC which lists the right of every child to play under Article 31 (United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989). In the New Zealand early childhood sector, learning through play has emerged as a widely supported sentiment in early education, and is closely connected with concepts of free choice (Te One, 2011). Kaiako are expected to be strong advocates for play and to also demonstrate a professional commitment to play-based discourses (Nicolson & Bracefield, 2019).

Implications for practice

The findings outlined in the discussion section reflect not only the impact of cultural beliefs and experiences and the practice of these beginner teachers, but also the complexity and interplay of personal identity and professionalism. The themes discussed reflect the participants’ perspectives on the balance between play-based learning, academic readiness and the challenges of providing effective early childhood education. Some participants initially stressed the importance of preparing tamariki for further education, and questioned whether the focus on play in New Zealand early learning settings adequately prepares children for the transition to school. This highlighted an early belief that a more teacher-directed, structured approach was necessary to effectively educate children, as seen in their home countries, in contrast to the child-centred, holistic approach advocated by Te Whāriki (MoE, 2017).

The narratives also revealed confusion around finding a balance between intentional teaching and child-led play (Aiono, McLaughlin, & Riley, 2019). While there was widespread acknowledgement of the value of play-based learning, participants were unsure how to incorporate literacy and numeracy for children through intentional teaching practices. In the short time that they had been working in the ECE sector, many of the participants had also experienced differing opinions among their own teaching teams, with some recommending children be academically extended and others advocating for a play-based approach.

Negotiating a new image of the child to support children’s learning and development
It is clear, however, that over their journey to become fully qualified early childhood teachers in New Zealand, these participants have had to negotiate many challenges to their own cultural beliefs and understandings around appropriate early childhood education practice. This study found that engagement with sociocultural theories while studying for their ECE qualification, and time spent teaching in New Zealand early childhood centres, had significantly changed the participants’ image of the child and corresponding views on play and learning. This had also impacted on how they perceive their own evolving identities as beginner teachers.

Through their cultural lens, the original image of the child held by these participants was one of innocence, vulnerability and helplessness (McCartney & Harris, 2014). In connection with this image, participants had brought with them early childhood experiences from their own diverse cultural contexts which had shaped their expectations for both children and teachers in the sector. However, through their embodied experience of teaching practice these assumptions began to shift:

Even though these teachers had recently graduated and only been teaching in the New Zealand ECE environment for a few months, their image of the child had significantly changed to align more with Te Whāriki’s view of children as competent and capable (MoE, 2017). They also demonstrated that they had engaged with the underpinning sociocultural theories at a more personal level, as “the curriculum framework invites teachers to weave themselves, the children, their cultures and settings into the curriculum, and it encourages dialogue and reflection” (Tesar, 2015, p. 12).

Fostering diversity in initial teacher training (ITE) spaces
In order to reflect the increasing cultural diversity of Aotearoa New Zealand, and of the early childhood sector, providers of initial teacher education (ITE) must establish flexible and robust pathways into the profession (Griffiths et al, 2022). Additionally, leaders of learning services should consider the composition of their teaching teams to ascertain if they authentically represent the communities they are working with. Prospective early childhood education teachers may be influenced in their decision to enter the profession or complete a teaching qualification based on their perceptions of their own identity and diversity (Griffiths et al, 2022). When it comes to admission panels or decision-making bodies such as committees or expert panels, it is salient to consider those who might be missing from selection or omitted from a policy.

Many student teachers from migrant backgrounds may enter ITE programmes unfamiliar with the New Zealand educational context, and they may also be completely new arrivals to Aotearoa. Ideas such as the importance of child-centred, play-based pedagogy may be dominant discourses in New Zealand (Chan, 2020) but these can radically challenge both the image of the child held by these students and their notions of best practice for educators. In the ITE teaching and learning environment more time needs to be set aside to support these teachers to unpack pedagogical ideas and approaches through embodied experiences.

Student teachers’ prior experiences of ECE may have been teacher-directed, therefore it could be useful to create space for them to experience learning through play. This could be through interactive activities in class, such as role plays, games, waiata (songs), art and raranga (weaving), and outside the class, for example time spent in nature, cultural heritage site visits and noho marae (overnight marae stays). At an applied level, these embodied experiences could help them begin to understand the holistic approach of Te Whāriki (MoE, 2017).

Aside from practicum, which can be a pressured domain for student teachers, ITE programmes could also offer opportunities for student teachers from migrant backgrounds to visit New Zealand early childhood settings. The purpose of this would be to observe and, if possible, to engage with kaiako, tamariki and whānau. This could offer the opportunity for them to engage in critical reflection about their views on children, the concept of childhood, and how constructions of childhood might be evident in their own perceptions of their roles as educators (Tong, 2023).

Conclusion

This paper has drawn attention to the diverse cultural contexts of beginner teachers from migrant backgrounds in Aotearoa New Zealand to show the ways in which participants' cultural backgrounds influence their image of the child. While these teachers’ prior beliefs may have privileged the role of the adult as expert, their ITE study and time in early learning settings has led them to re-examine these theories to place the child at the centre. This has impacted on their teaching philosophy and their ideas about children's capabilities, the purpose of education, and the role of play. Understanding these cultural influences is crucial for promoting culturally responsive and inclusive practices in early childhood education.

Although all the participants in this study come from migrant backgrounds, it is important to remember that even those who originate from the same country may not be culturally homogeneous (Chan, 2020). As a result, the perspectives of individuals will vary, as they draw upon their own cultural heritage, personal experiences and knowledge of early education systems to form their image of the child. This study could be strengthened further by expanding the number of participants to include a more culturally diverse range of beginner teachers from migrant backgrounds. This would add richness to the narratives and reflect multiple cultural lenses on the perspectives of participants. Despite this limitation, few studies have investigated how teachers from migrant background enact and embody culture in early learning settings (Arndt 2018). This paper argues that engaging with these ideas can lead to more culturally responsive pedagogies and inclusive ECE workplaces for these beginner teachers, which in turn can lead to better outcomes for tamariki.

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