Introduction

Theoretical perspectives of children’s learning and development provide a foundation for greater analytical thinking and help make explicit the theory-practice connection, which is such an essential focus for initial teacher education programs (Korthagen, 2010). Theories that support early years practitioners to describe, explain and guide the teaching and learning process are an essential component of a professional early childhood teachers’ body of knowledge (MacBlain, 2021). An ability to reflect on appropriate theories is imperative to equip student teachers to become competent professionals who can engage with complex early years issues (Berk, 2022). Not being able to reflect on theoretical concepts may lead to narrow and shallow understandings of what defines high quality practice in early childhood education (MacBlain, 2021). McMillan (2017) claims that a rich theoretical underpinning and a rigorous conceptual understanding are required to teach effectively in an early years’ setting. 

A theory is composed of multiple concepts that are defined independently and, crucially, in relation to one another, thereby establishing the theory's systematic framework. Pramling (2023, p. 3) notes that “it is the explicit clarification of the relationship of a set of concepts, a relationship through which they gain their meaning, that makes up a theory”. In this way, Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory can be considered a theory because it provides a systematic framework for understanding the dynamic interactions between developing individuals and their environments at multiple levels. It offers a comprehensive view of human development that considers the complexities of relationships, contexts, and influences that shape children’s growth and behavior. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2007) emphasise that in the bioecological model, the interaction and integration of influences produce synergies that have greater effect than any single factor such as context or time.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological models of development

Bronfenbrenner’s contribution to the field of child development theory spans four decades and can be viewed as consisting of three distinct phases (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). However, common to all phases is the underlying proposition of ecology, which includes a focus on the interactions between people and their environment. Bronfenbrenner is perhaps most well-known for ecological systems theory and the often-illustrated image of a child in nested layers of context including the micro, meso, and macro systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This proved a compelling metaphor to explain the way in which powerful influences of both close and distal environments that shape the child’s learning.

However, a simplistic interpretation of the ecological model, that left the focus of development on the influence of context, omitted the kinds of synergy and interrelated influences of the person of the child that was afforded in later iterations of the model (Navarro et al., 2022; Rosa & Tudge, 2013). Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2007) hence developed their bioecological theory to include greater consideration of the person of the child. In this way the uniqueness and what the child brings to the early childhood setting, their characteristics, traits, dispositions and the way in which these features interact with the environment, are viewed as contributing factors for children’s development.

It should be noted however that the child’s response should not be viewed in isolation, meaning that the way the other person may influence and shape the child’s development is also a key consideration. How people such as caregivers respond to the child’s characteristics, and the way the child’s dispositions interact with the learning environment, are important considerations. For example, the teachers may differ in their response to children based on traits and characteristics, such as their gender, age, social skills, ethnicity and special educational needs (as cited in O’Toole et al., 2014). Whyte (2024), in her study of the inclusion of a child with a disability, was able to show how teachers and peers responded to the child by having lowered expectations that prevented his participation in the learning community.

Proximal processes

Proximal process is the key construct of the Person, Process, Context, Time model that constitutes Bronfenbrenner’s third phase of ecology theory, bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2007). Context still features, but also featuring are proximal processes which are the reciprocal interactions that take place between a developing human being and one or more of the persons, objects, and symbols in his or her environment (Hayes et al., 2022). Characteristics of quality proximal processes are that these reciprocal interactions should become progressively more complex over time for processes to have a profound effect, and they must also happen over a duration of time and with consistency (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2007). In early childhood settings, such processes might be captured in the teacher-child interactions that support the child’s immediate wellbeing, such as feeding, washing, changing the nappy of the child, and so on. As such proximal processes become progressively more complex and they support children in attaining new knowledge, skills and abilities; in short, through these reciprocal interactions, children become more competent (Siraj & Mayo, 2014). Such care-based practices have long been held as worthy of particular attention in the way that they support attachments and deepen relationships necessary for effective teaching and learning (McNally & Slutsky, 2017; Ministry of Education, 2017).

Bronfenbrenner suggests that the proximal processes are the primary mechanisms in the child’s development, as it is through engaging in these activities and interactions that the child makes sense of his or her world (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2007). This perspective emphasises the importance of relationships and the recognition that relationships are the main mode through which the child develops. In Bronfenbrenner’s words, “every child needs at least one adult who is irrationally crazy about him or her” (as cited in Brendtro, 2006, p. 163) and, in some cases where the child is not sufficiently cared for in the home, this could be the early childhood teacher. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2007, p. 822) saw proximal processes act as “engines of development” for children, shaping their self-conception. In Bronfenbrenner’s description of the proximal process, the impact is understood to contribute and shape the child’s internal working model, a concept shared with attachment theory which explains how early child and adult interaction influences later relationships. In this way, the responses of people are internalised by the child.

Attachment theory and internalisation

As explored by Hayes et al. (2022), attachment theory, proposed by John Bowlby, is an underpinning concept of Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory and a key component of the idea of proximal processes and their significance for relationship building and development. Hayes et al. (2022) make it clear that both theories emphasise the critical role of close connections with caregivers in fostering positive outcomes for individuals. The internalisation of proximal processes contributes to shaping a child's internal working model and sense of self, echoing the principles of attachment theory in nurturing supportive relationships. This also resonates with the Relationship strand of Te Whāriki: He whāriki mātauranga mō ngā mokopuna o Aotearoa: Early childhood curriculum (Te Whāriki) (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2017). Te Whāriki and its underpinning sociocultural theory highlight the significance of supportive relationships to children’s holistic development. 

All sociocultural perspectives understand that people are not just being influenced or affected by others, but are actually constituted by sociocultural practices (Martin, 2014). This notion of the dialectic between the individual and the environment is reflected in Vygotsky’s (1978, p. 57) genetic law of cultural development, whereby the internal and the external are understood to be mutually constituting and thus transforming one another in a dialectical way:

This process of internalisation also occurs during moments of proximal process. When the teacher and the child share the same goal and engage in collaborative processes such as negotiation, reaching mutual understanding, conversation and compromise, and providing a sense of security, the child internalises these interactions. If this happens over time and consistently, then the child’s sense of security also develops. In Bronfenbrenner's theory, a child's internalisation of attachment quality is based on growing up in an environment where their needs are consistently met in genuine and responsive relationships. This shapes the child's self-concept for the future.

Practices to promote proximal processes

Separation anxiety is a common challenge for early childhood teachers. Teaching practices that promote proximal processes can be particularly helpful for settling infants and toddlers in early childhood settings. These could include:

1. Building secure attachments: Place a strong emphasis on forming secure attachments with each infant and toddler in your care. Focus on responding to their cues, providing comfort, and creating a nurturing environment where they feel safe and secure.
2. Creating sensory-rich environments: Design the environment to stimulate the senses of infants and toddlers, providing opportunities for exploration and sensory experiences. Utilise soft fabrics, gentle music, and natural materials to create a calming and engaging space.
3. Engaging families in caregiving routines: Involve families in caregiving routines such as feeding, diapering, and naptime. Encourage open communication and sharing of information to create consistency between home and childcare environments.
4. Offering gentle guidance and support: Provide gentle guidance and support as infants and toddlers explore their environment and engage in activities. Offer reassurance, praise efforts, and provide assistance when needed to promote a sense of security and confidence.
5. Providing a variety of sensory experiences: Offer a range of sensory experiences such as messy play, outdoor exploration, and music and movement activities. These experiences help infants and toddlers engage in proximal processes, where they learn through hands-on exploration and discovery.
6. Promoting language development: Encourage language development through engaging in conversations, reading books, singing songs, and using gestures and facial expressions. Provide opportunities for infants and toddlers to communicate their needs and desires and respond sensitively to their vocalisations and gestures.

By implementing these revised practices, educators can create a nurturing and supportive environment that promotes the optimal development of infants and toddlers in their care.

Conclusion

The intention of this article is to raise the profile of theoretical perspectives and their application to programs for initial teacher education. Through the lens of bioecological theory and one of its key components, proximal processes, this article has sought to further underline the significance of relationships to early childhood teaching and learning and describe how these are internalised by the developing child, thus revealing the significance of the role of the early childhood teacher in formal settings. Understanding the intersection of proximal processes, attachment theory and internalisation will result in better informed practitioners who are able to elevate workplace practices to explicitly speak to quality pedagogy.

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